Effects of group size on agonistic interactions in dairy cows: a descriptive study.

Group-housed cattle may engage in agonistic interactions over resources such as feed, which can negatively affect aspects of welfare. Little is known about how contextual factors such as group size influence agonistic behaviour. We explored the frequency of agonistic interactions at the feeder when cattle were housed in different-sized groups. We also explored the consistency of the directionality of agonistic interactions in dyads and of the number of agonistic interactions initiated by individuals across the group sizes. Four replicates of 50 cows each were assessed in two group-size phases. In Phase 1, cows were kept in one group of 50. In Phase 2, these same cows were divided into five groups of 10, maintaining stocking density (i.e., ratio of animals to lying stalls and feed bunk spaces). We measured agonistic replacements (i.e., interactions that result in one cow leaving the feed bin and another taking her place) at an electronic feeder using a validated algorithm. We used these data from Phase 1 to calculate individual Elo-ratings (a type of dominance score). Cows were then categorised into five dominance categories based upon these ratings. To ensure a consistent Elo-rating distribution between phases, two cows from each dominance category were randomly assigned to each small group of 10 cows. The mean ± SE number of replacements per cow was similar regardless of whether the cows were housed in groups of 50 (34.1 ± 2.4) or 10 (31.1 ± 4.5), although the groups of 10 were more variable. Further, 81.6 ± 7.7% (mean ± SD) of dyads had the same directionality across group sizes (i.e., the same individual won the majority of interactions in the dyad) and individuals were moderately consistent in the number of replacements they initiated (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.62 ± 0.11; mean ± SD). These results indicate that the relationship between group size and agonistic behaviour is complex; we discuss these challenges and suggest new avenues for further research.

Androgen receptors rapidly modulate non-breeding aggression in male and female weakly electric fish (Gymnotus omarorum).

The South American weakly electric fish, Gymnotus omarorum, displays territorial aggression year-round in both sexes. To examine the role of rapid androgen modulation in non-breeding aggression, we administered acetate cyproterone (CPA), a potent inhibitor of androgen receptors, to both male and females, just before staged agonistic interactions. Wild-caught fish were injected with CPA and, 30 min later, paired in intrasexual dyads. We then recorded the agonistic behavior which encompasses both locomotor displays and emission of social electric signals. We found that CPA had no discernible impact on the levels of aggression or the motivation to engage in aggressive behavior for either sex. However, CPA specifically decreased the expression of social electric signals in both males and female dyads. The effect was status-dependent as it only affected subordinate electrocommunication behavior, the emission of brief interruptions in their electric signaling ("offs"). This study is the first demonstration of a direct and rapid androgen effect mediated via androgen receptors on non-breeding aggression. Elucidating the mechanisms involved in non-breeding aggression in this teleost model allows us to better understand potentially conserved or convergent neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying aggression in vertebrates.

Relation between postpartum calf-licking behavior and agonistic behavior against handlers by primiparous beef cows.

Maternal protective behavior in cattle husbandry settings is typically manifested as agonistic behavior against farm staff handling the calves. Investigating factors related to agonistic behavior of cows is important. Agonistic behaviors of 30 primiparous cows against farm staff handling their calves during the immediate postpartum period were observed using continuous recording. Relations between this agonistic behavior and calf-licking behavior were also analyzed for 2 h postpartum. Agonistic behavior was exhibited by 11 cows: 10 first displayed it during the first hour postpartum, whereas one displayed it during the second hour postpartum. Cows showing agonistic behavior spent a significantly longer time engaged in licking behavior during the first 2 h postpartum than the cows not showing agonistic behavior (p < 0.05). Although cows exhibiting agonistic behavior were likely to exhibit more calf-licking behavior, particularly during the first hour postpartum, than those not exhibiting agonistic behavior (p = 0.08), no difference was found in the proportion of time used for calf-licking during the second hour postpartum (p = 0.61). Results suggest an association between agonistic behavior against humans and greater calf-licking behavior in primiparous cows immediately postpartum.

Boldness, activity, and aggression: Insights from a large-scale study in Baltic salmon (Salmo salar L).

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) display high levels of agonistic behavior in aquaculture farms, resulting in fin damage and chronic stress. Aggression affects fish growth and performance negatively, and presents a serious welfare problem. Indeed, it would be beneficial to identify, separate or exclude overly aggressive individuals. Research on behavioral syndromes suggests that aggressive behavior may correlate with other behavioral traits, such as boldness and locomotory activity. We aimed to develop a high-throughput method to quantify and predict aggressive behavior of individual parr in hatchery-reared Baltic salmon (Salmo salar L.). We screened approximately 2000 parr in open field (OF) and mirror image stimulation (MIS) tests. We extracted seven variables from video tracking software for each minute of the tests; distance moved and duration moving (activity), the duration in and number of entries to the center of the arena (boldness), the distance moved in and duration spent in the area adjacent to the mirror during the MIS test (aggressiveness) and head direction (lateralization). To investigate the relationship between activity, boldness and aggression we first correlated the first six variables to one another. Second, we assigned individuals to high, medium, low or zero aggression groups based on the MIS test and quantified activity and boldness in each group. Third, we analyzed whether the fish viewed the mirror with the left or right eye. Our results show that medium and low aggressive fish were the most active, while highly aggressive fish showed average activity. Aggressive groups did not differ in boldness. Activity and boldness were positively correlated. Finally, we detected a preference for fish to view the mirror with the left eye. We conclude that aggressiveness cannot be predicted from the results of the OF test alone but that the MIS test can be used for large-scale individual aggression profiling of juvenile salmon.

Iridescent scales signal male fighting ability to access females in the jewelled splitfin Xenotoca variata.

Jewelled splitfin males (Xenotoca variata) possess multi-colour iridescent scales (speckles) on the flanks. This study tested the hypothesis that the number of speckles could be a good proxy for predicting fighting ability in contests for access to females. The experiments consisted in observing and recording males' agonistic behaviour, courtship displays and mating attempts in mixed-sex groups. The data were analysed and presented based on a Bayesian approach, which revealed that the density (cm-2 ) of speckles was positively correlated with the increase observed in the proportional frequency of attacks. Similarly, the density of speckles was positively associated with the increase observed in the frequency of courtship behaviour and with the frequency of mating attempts. Male-male aggressions drastically diminished (by eightfold) when females were removed from the observation tanks. These results indicate that the number of speckles is a consistent predictor of successful access to females and therefore, speckled males are likely to be able to gain more mating opportunities. This finding highlights the ubiquitous role iridescent colours play in visual signalling.

Fighting cichlids: An integrated multimodal analysis to understand female and male aggression in Cichlasoma dimerus.

Aggression has been historically linked to males and androgen levels and, even if females from different species also display aggressive behavior, female aggression is still widely understudied. The aim of the present work is to disentangle how sex differences in social plasticity can be explained by sex steroid hormone levels, gonadal state and/or morphometric characteristics. In this context, we performed intrasexual dyadic encounters to identify social plasticity after acquiring a winner or loser status in males and females of Cichlasoma dimerus. This integral analysis suggests that the reproductive and hormonal variables analyzed explain the behavioral variation among winner and loser males and females, and that there are significant differences between sexes and contest outcome when individual morphometric variables are excluded from the analysis. Interestingly, there are no sex differences in aggressive and submissive behaviors, and clustering into winners and losers is mainly explained by specific behavioral displays, such as bites, chases, approaches, passive copings, and escapes. Correlation heatmaps show a positive correlation between estradiol with aggression and a negative correlation with submission, suggesting estrogens may have a dual role regulating agonistic behavior. Finally, these results suggest that size difference can help to understand aggression in females but not in males, and that assessment of the opponent's body size is important to understand aggression also before the initiation of the contest in both sexes. Overall, this study constitutes an integral approach adding insights into the importance of reproductive and hormonal variables to understand social plasticity in males and females.

Social factors drive vocal exchanges in red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus).

Of all the calls made by non-human primates, the function of short-distance contact calls has largely remained to be determined. These calls are the most frequent in the repertoire and are most often exchanged between individuals in a non-random way. To our knowledge, no study has ever examined how vocal exchanges are structured in red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus), a semi-terrestrial monkey living in the African forest with a complex semi-tolerant/semi-despotic social system. Our goal was to assess the organization of contact call exchanges in this species and their relationship with individual and social factors such as age, affinity, and hierarchy. Therefore, we observed several captive groups of red-capped mangabeys and collected data on vocal behavior, as well as grooming, agonistic behavior, and spatial proximity. We defined a vocal exchange in this species as a series of contact calls made by two or more individuals within a maximum inter-caller interval of 2 s. At the individual level, the higher the individual's hierarchical rank, the less they initiated exchanges. Furthermore, the most socially integrated individuals had a longer average response time than the less integrated ones. At the dyadic level, preferred exchange partners were individuals often observed near one other or individuals most distant in age. Also, the further apart two individuals were in the dominance hierarchy, the shorter the response time. Our results support both the social bonding hypothesis and a modulating key role of the dominance hierarchy on the social use of contact calls, which is in line with the social style of this species.

An ethological analysis of close-contact inter-cat interactions determining if cats are playing, fighting, or something in between.

Intraspecific social interactions in domestic cats are often categorised as affiliative or agonistic. However, public or professional assessment of encounters can have difficulty distinguishing rough-and-tumble play from true agonism. One possible issue is the potential occurrence of elements of both, play and agonism, within inter-cat play, for example when one cat wants to terminate a bout of play but the other seeks to continue the interaction, which subsequently may provoke more overt agonistic behaviour. To test this hypothesis, we conducted behavioural observations of 105 unique dyadic interactions of domestic cats (N = 210) captured on videos collected from owners and YouTube. We assessed cats for the frequency and duration of six behavioural elements. The dataset was reduced using PCA with a varimax rotation and factor scores were used to classify the population using hierarchical cluster analysis. To validate the identified clusters, the average scores of the constituent factors were compared and the data on interactions were labelled by four cat behaviour experts as "playful", "intermediate" or "agonistic". In addition, to evaluate properties of expert-labelled categories we used linear discriminant analysis followed by an ordinal regression. The results showed considerable convergent validity in factor distributions between clusters and expert-labelled groups: reciprocal wrestling was most closely associated with a group of playfully interacting cats, while vocalisation and chasing were associated with the agonistic group. The intermediate group, while having characteristics of both, was more closely related to the playful group than the agonistic group, with prolonged exchanges of interactive behaviours being a predominant feature. Thus, our findings support the suggestion of there being an intermediate category between mutual social play and agonism. This might escalate into a fully agonistic encounter, but does not necessarily reflect a break down in their social relationship but rather a short-term disagreement in social priorities.

Impact of intraspecific variation in teleost fishes: aggression, dominance status and stress physiology.

Dominance-based social hierarchies are common among teleost fishes. The rank of an animal greatly affects its behaviour, physiology and development. The outcome of fights for social dominance is affected by heritable factors and previous social experience. Divergent stress-coping styles have been demonstrated in a large number of teleosts, and fish displaying a proactive coping style have an advantage in fights for social dominance. Coping style has heritable components, but it appears to be largely determined by environmental factors, especially social experience. Agonistic behaviour is controlled by the brain's social decision-making network, and its monoaminergic systems play important roles in modifying the activity of this neuronal network. In this Review, we discuss the development of dominance hierarchies, how social rank is signalled through visual and chemical cues, and the neurobiological mechanisms controlling or correlating with agonistic behaviour. We also consider the effects of social interactions on the welfare of fish reared in captivity.

Vocalization during agonistic encounter in Mongolian gerbils: Impact of sexual experience.

Behaviors and vocalizations associated with aggression are essential for animals to survive, reproduce, and organize social hierarchy. Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) are highly aggressive and frequently emit calls. We took advantage of these features to study the relationship between vocalizations and aggressive behaviors in virgin and sexually experienced male and female Mongolian gerbils through the same-sex resident-intruder test. Both sexes of resident gerbils exhibited aggressive responses toward intruders. Multiparous females exhibited the most aggressive responses among the four groups. We also confirmed two groups of vocalizations during the encounters: high-frequency (>24.6 kHz) and low-frequency (<24.6 kHz). At the timing of high-frequency vocalizations observed during the tests, the vast majority (96.2%) of the behavioral interactions were non-agonistic. While, at the timing of low-frequency vocalizations observed during the tests, around half (45%) of the behavioral interactions were agonistic. Low-frequency vocalizations were observed mainly during encounters in which multiparous females were involved. These results suggest that high- and low-frequency vocalizations relate to non-agonistic and agonistic interactions, respectively. In addition to affecting aggressive behavior, sexual experience also affects vocalization during encounters. These findings provide new insights into the modulatory effects of sex and sexual experience on vocalizations during agonistic encounters.

Agonistic behaviour of dairy goats and sheep during feeding - A pilot study on Swiss farms with mixed rations.

INTRODUCTION: Feeding mixed rations is a widely used practice for cattle to ensure the intake of a balanced diet and to reduce competition for food. It is unknown, whether mixed rations have the same advantages for small ruminants because they differ from cattle in their feeding and social behaviour. In this observational pilot study, an array of feeding and social behaviour of dairy goats and sheep fed ad libitum with mixed rations on Swiss farms was investigated. Twelve dairy goat and 12 dairy sheep farms feeding mixed rations were visited once during the winter feeding period. Data on the feeding management, feeding place design and the composition of the mixed rations were collected. The number of animals feeding simultaneously and the number and type of agonistic interactions during feeding were assessed by direct observations for 6 hours after the morning feed-distribution. The feeding management and the composition of the mixed rations were very heterogeneous among farms. The feed rations were mostly well balanced in relation to energy and protein and covered the requirements for the daily production of about 2,5 kg of milk. In terms of feeding simultaneously, sheep were more synchronous than goats. The mean number of agonistic interactions per feeding place within 6 hours were 3,8 in goats and 1,8 in sheep; thus, the probability to observe agonistic behaviour is higher in goats than in sheep. Goats and sheep also differed in the frequency of types of agonistic interactions. Overall, the occurrence of agonistic interactions between animals during feeding decreased with higher numbers of feeding places per animal and longer periods of time since the feed distribution. To conclude, when feeding mixed rations, agonistic interactions related to feeding are more frequent in goats but also occur in sheep to a considerable extent. They can be decreased by offering more feeding places.

INTRODUCTION: L'alimentation avec des rations mixtes est une pratique largement utilisée pour les bovins afin de garantir l'apport d'une alimentation équilibrée et de réduire la concurrence pour la nourriture. On ignore si les rations mixtes présentent les mêmes avantages pour les petits ruminants, car ils diffèrent des bovins en matière de comportement alimentaire et social. Dans cette étude observationnelle pilote, un éventail de comportements alimentaires et sociaux de chèvres et de moutons laitiers nourris ad libitum avec des rations mixtes dans des fermes suisses a été étudié. Douze exploitations de chèvres laitières et 12 exploitations de moutons laitiers, utilisant des rations mixtes, ont été visitées une fois pendant la période d'alimentation hivernale. Des données sur la gestion de l'alimentation, la conception du lieu d'alimentation et la composition des rations mixtes ont été recueillies. Le nombre d'animaux s'alimentant simultanément et le nombre et le type d'interactions agonistiques pendant l'alimentation ont été évalués par des observations directes pendant 6 heures après la distribution matinale des aliments. La gestion de l'alimentation et la composition des rations mélangées étaient très hétérogènes entre les exploitations. Les rations alimentaires étaient généralement bien équilibrées en termes d'énergie et de protéines et couvraient les besoins pour la production quotidienne d'environ 2,5 kg de lait. En termes d'alimentation simultanée, les moutons étaient plus synchrones que les chèvres. Le nombre moyen d'interactions agonistiques par place d'alimentation dans les 6 heures était de 3,8 chez les chèvres et de 1,8 chez les moutons ; la probabilité d'observer un comportement agonistique est en conséquence plus élevée chez les chèvres que chez les moutons. Les chèvres et les moutons diffèrent également dans la fréquence des types d'interactions agonistiques. Dans l'ensemble, l'occurrence des interactions agonistiques entre les animaux pendant l'alimentation a diminué avec un nombre plus élevé de places d'alimentation par animal et des périodes plus longues depuis la distribution des aliments. En conclusion, lors de la distribution de rations mixtes, les interactions agonistiques liées à l'alimentation sont plus fréquentes chez les chèvres mais se produisent également dans une large mesure chez les moutons. Elles peuvent être réduites en offrant davantage de places d'alimentation.

Impact of temperature-induced sex reversal on behavior and sound production in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus).

In some fish species, sex is determined by the combination of genetic and environmental factors. In most species concerned, extreme temperatures during the sensitive period of sex differentiation drives masculinization, independently of the female sex chromosomes. In Nile tilapia (XY male heterogamety), XX juveniles exposed to high temperatures (>32 °C) can masculinize and become phenotypical males (neomales). Whether these neomales exhibit a different behavior than XY males remains however unclear. Sex reversal being naturally relevant, we investigated the agonistic behavior of neomales during dyadic fights and the preference of gravid females for one of the two male types. We quantified the behavior, size of the nest, hormone circulating levels (testosterone, 11-ketotestosterone and cortisol) and sound production of the two male types in both contexts. Independently of the individual they face, neomales seem to display more aggressive behaviors than XY males but often fail to become dominant. Agonistic interactions were mainly silent, suggesting that sounds are unnecessary for the establishment of social hierarchy. Although males and neomales produce different kinds of sounds when facing a gravid female, the female does not exhibit a preference. Overall, no differences were observed for hormone circulating concentrations between the two male types. We suggest that the sex chromosomes and/or the sex reversal procedure may have differently shaped the brain of neomales, resulting in differences in the expression of behavior.

Agonistic behaviour of wild eels and depressed survival and growth of farmed eels in mixed rearing experiments.

To contribute to improving eel stocking procedures, the survival, growth and behaviour of farmed Japanese eels reared together with wild individuals were evaluated to learn about possible encounters of farmed- and stocked eels with wild eels. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the (a) effect of the presence of wild eels on survival and growth of farmed eels in experimental ponds and (b) behavioural differences between wild and farmed eels placed in a small tank. In the survival and growth experiment, significantly lower survival and growth rates of farmed eels reared with wild eels were observed compared with farmed eels reared without wild eels (control). In the behavioural observations, the authors observed significantly higher occupation rates of a refuge and more frequent biting for wild eels, indicating a dominance of wild eels over farmed eels. Because wild and farmed eels used in the current experiments belong to the same genetic population, these differences resulted within one generation through the aquaculture rearing process.

Environmental Enrichment Differentially Activates Neural Circuits in FVB/N Mice, Inducing Social Interaction in Females but Agonistic Behavior in Males.

Environmental enrichment induces behavioral and structural modifications in rodents and influences the capability of mice to cope with stress. However, little is understood about hippocampal neurogenesis and the appearance of social/agonistic (aggressive) behavior upon activation of different neuronal circuits in FVB/N mice. Thus, in this study we hypothesized that environmental enrichment differentially regulates neurogenesis, neural circuit activation and social/agonistic behavior in male and female FVB/N mice. We explored the (1) neurogenic process as an indicative of neuroplasticity, (2) neuronal activation in the limbic system, and (3) social behavior using the resident-intruder test. On postnatal day 23 (PD23), mice were assigned to one of two groups: Standard Housing or Environmental Enrichment. At PD53, rodents underwent the resident-intruder test to evaluate social behaviors. Results revealed that environmental enrichment increased neurogenesis and social interaction in females. In males, environmental enrichment increased neurogenesis and agonistic behavior. Enriched male mice expressed higher levels of agonistic-related behavior than female mice housed under the same conditions. Neural circuit analysis showed lower activation in the amygdala of enriched males and higher activation in enriched females than their respective controls. Enriched females also showed higher activation in the frontal cortex without differences in male groups. Moreover, the insular cortex was less activated in females than in males. Thus, our results indicate that environmental enrichment has different effects on neuroplasticity and social/agonistic behavior in FVB/N mice, suggesting the relevance of sexual dimorphism in response to environmental stimuli.

Zn contamination stimulate agonistic behavior and oxidative stress of crayfishes (Procambarus clarkii).

BACKGROUND: As a result of the global industrial revolution, contamination of the ecosystem by heavy metals has given rise to one of the most important ecological and organismic problems. The current study aimed to evaluate the effect of Zn contamination on agonistic behavior and oxidative damage of crayfish. METHODS: Crayfishes of the field study group were collected from a polluted area (Rosetta branch), where the highest concentration for heavy metals in water was zinc (Zn). Besides the field study group, other crayfishes were exposed to different doses of ZnSO4 (0, 203, and 406 mg L-1), which corresponding to Zn concentration (0, 46.03, and 92.06 mg L-1) respectively in aquariums for consecutive four days. Agonistic behavior is quantified by decreasing fast retreat, slowly back away and no response, increasing initial claw use, active claw use, approach with the threat, approach without threat, and unrestrained behavior. RESULTS: The result revealed that agonistic behavior increases significantly with the increase of water Zn concentration. Malondialdehyde and catalase levels increased, while glutathione concentration reduced with the increase of Zn concentration. CONCLUSION: Our current study reveals that zinc exposure is capable of inducing an increase in the social status (agonistics behavior) and oxidative stress parameters in Procambarus clarkii. The increase in aggressive behavior may have major population-level consequences given the high mortality experienced by this crayfish.

Manifestations of domination: Assessments of social dominance in rodents.

Social hierarchies are ubiquitous features of virtually all animal groups. The varying social ranks of members within these groups have profound effects on both physical and emotional health, with lower-ranked individuals typically being the most adversely affected by their respective ranks. Thus, reliable measures of social dominance in preclinical rodent models are necessary to better understand the effects of an individual's social rank on other behaviors and physiological processes. In this review, we outline the primary methodologies used to assess social dominance in various rodent species: those that are based on analyses of agonistic behaviors, and those that are based on resource competition. In synthesizing this review, we conclude that assays based on resource competition may be better suited to characterize social dominance in a wider variety of rodent species and strains, and in both males and females. Lastly, albeit expectedly, we demonstrate that similarly to many other areas of preclinical research, studies incorporating female subjects are lacking in comparison to those using males. These findings emphasize the need for an increased number of studies assessing social dominance in females to form a more comprehensive understanding of this behavioral phenomenon.

Acoustic analysis of vocalization and the behavioral response associated to sound production of the nine banded armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus (Mammalia, Cingulata, Dasypodidae) in an agonistic context

Although communication capabilities are displayed by many vertebrate groups, some repertoires are poorly known, such as the case of xenarthrans, particularly armadillos, for which vocalization as a source of communicating to others remains poorly understood and relies on punctual reports of sounds. Here we provide the first description of a behavioral response associated with sound emission of two subjects of Dasypus novemcinctus. Both audio and visual registration was performed to subsequent analyses of expressed behaviors and emitted calls, which accounted for 76 vocalizations from a total of eight video recordings randomly collected from 2017 to 2019. Sound is acoustically characterized by both inhale and exhale phases composed of two vocal units, and no harmonic structure was observed. Once the subjects have always produced these vocalizations while cornered and exhibiting defensive behavior against another subject/human disturbance, these vocalizations were termed as distress. Subjects produced a hiss-purr-like sound while trying to avoid contact with another by bowing or lowering their bodies, humping, or even moving elsewhere when sound production ceased. This shows that the sound repertoire of armadillos is still to be unveiled and seems to be much more complex than previously thought.(AU)

Health workers' disrespectful and abusive behaviour towards women during labour and delivery: A qualitative study in Durban, South Africa.

BACKGROUND: A high prevalence of disrespectful and abusive behaviour by health workers towards women during labour and delivery has been widely described in health facilities, particularly in Africa, and is a worldwide public health concern. Such behaviours are barriers to care-seeking, and are associated with adverse outcomes for mothers and newborns. This paper reports experiences of disrespectful care among informal working women in three public health facilities in Durban, South Africa. METHODS: A qualitative longitudinal study was conducted among a cohort of informal working women recruited during pregnancy in two clinics in Durban. The study comprised a series of in-depth interviews conducted at different time points from pregnancy until mothers had returned to work, followed by focus group discussions (FGDs) with cohort participants. We present data from participatory FGDs, known as 'Journey with my Baby', conducted at the end of the study, during which women's experiences from pregnancy until returning to work were reviewed and explored. Thematic analysis was used with NVIVO v12.4. RESULTS: Three 'Journey with my Baby' FGDs were conducted with a total of 15 participants between March and October 2019. Many participants narrated experiences of disrespectful behavior from nurses during labour and childbirth, with several women becoming very distressed as a result. Women described experiencing rudeness and verbal abuse from nurses, lack of privacy and confidentiality, nurses refusing to provide care, being denied companionship and being left unattended for long periods during labour. Women described feeling anxious and unsafe while in the labour ward because of the behaviour they experienced directly and observed other patients experiencing. Such experiences created bad reputations for health facilities, so that women in the local community were reluctant to attend some facilities. CONCLUSION: Disrespect and abuse continues to be a serious concern in public health facilities in South Africa. We challenge the health system to effectively address the underlying causes of disrespectful behavior among health workers, initiate robust monitoring to identify abusive behavior when it occurs, and take appropriate actions to ensure accountability so that women receive the high-quality maternity care they deserve.

The effects of cow dominance on the use of a mechanical brush.

An animal's social position within a group can influence its ability to perform important behaviours like eating and resting, but little is known about how social position affects the ability to express what are arguably less important but still rewarding behaviors, such as grooming. We set out to assess if dominance measured at the feeder is associated with increased use of a mechanical brush. Over a 2-year period, 161 dry cows were enrolled in a dynamically changing group of 20 individuals with access to a mechanical brush. We determined dominance using agonistic behaviors at the feeder and retrospectively analyzed brush use for the 12 most, and 12 least dominant individuals during the week before calving. Cows that were more dominant at the feeder used the brush more, especially during peak feeding times. Agonistic interactions at the brush did not differ between dominants and subordinates and were not related to brushing duration. These findings indicate that social position, calculated using competition for feed, affects mechanical brush access such that subordinates use the brush less than dominant cows independent of competition or time of day.

Changes in Functional Glucocorticoid Sensitivity of Isolated Splenocytes Induced by Chronic Psychosocial Stress - A Time Course Study.

Chronic psychosocial stress is a risk factor for the development of numerous disorders, of which most are associated with chronic low-grade inflammation. Given the immunosuppressive effects of glucocorticoids (GC), one underlying mechanism might be the development of stress-induced GC resistance in certain immune cell subpopulations. In line with this hypothesis, male mice exposed to the chronic subordinate colony housing (CSC, 19 days) model develop GC resistance of in vitro lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated splenocytes, splenomegaly and an increased percentage of splenic CD11b+ cells. Here male C57BL/6N mice were euthanized at different days during CSC, and following 30 days of single housing after stressor termination to assess when CSC-induced splenic GC resistance starts to develop and whether this is a transient effect. Moreover, splenic CD11b, GC receptor (GR) and/or macrophage migration inhibiting factor (MIF) protein levels were quantified at respective days. While mild forms of CSC-induced GC resistance, increased splenic CD11b expression and/or splenomegaly were detectable on days 8 and 9 of CSC, more severe forms took until days 15 and 16 to develop, but normalized almost completely within 30 days following stressor termination (day 51). In contrast, splenic GR expression was decreased in CSC versus single-housed control (SHC) mice at all days assessed. While MIF expression was increased on days 15 and 16 of CSC, it was decreased in CSC versus SHC mice on day 20 despite persisting splenomegaly, increased CD11b expression and functional GC resistance. In summary, our data indicate that GC resistance and CD11b+ cell-mediated splenomegaly develop gradually and in parallel over time during CSC exposure and are transient in nature. Moreover, while we can exclude that CSC-induced reduction in splenic GR expression is sufficient to induce functional GC resistance, the role of MIF in CD11b+ cell-mediated splenomegaly and GC resistance requires further investigation.